Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees
(part I)
I. Introduction:
In the earliest written records, Chinese people, like many other peoples in the world, are represented as already practising the worship of natural objects (cf. Hartland 1917b; Bonsall 1934:22; Edsman 1987:49). Early Chinese writers tell us that Fuxi, a mytho-historical ruler, was the first emperor to organise sacrifices to, and worship of certain natural features. In this he was followed by the Yellow Emperor, also a mytho-historical emperor, who first established the worship of the sun, the moon, and the five planets (Giles 1905:8). The Shijing (the Book of Odes) refers this sacrifice as far back as the period of the mytho-historical emperor Shun, and there is ample evidence that in the days of Confucius it was offered in all the feudal states into which the kingdom was then divided, not only on regular occasions, but also in times of flood, drought, pestilence, or illness of the ruler.
The worship of natural objects was, so far as we can learn from records, at first purely local, such as the hills, streams and so on as the most conspicuous natural features of the land in which Chinese lived (e.g. Berkovits and others 1969:76; Burkhardt 1958c:56f; Allan 1979:3). There is an ancient rite called the "Wang" ("to Look Forwards"), and the very name of this sacrifice suggests that it was offered in the neighbourhood of the particular hill or stream which was the object of worship (Bonsall 1934:22; Granet 1975:73). For example, the river Fen was an object of worship in the Wang sacrifice (Bonsall 1934:27). An essential element of this worship was the belief in an intimate connection between human conduct and natural phenomena. The Shijing insists that when bad government prevails, not only is man thrown into confusion, but the elements themselves are disturbed, and the beasts and vegetation depart from their proper course (Bonsall 1934:24).
Later on, some of these natural features were objectified in the ancient altar, which in time came to be thought of as the guardian deity of the place (Day 1974:61-62), while some worships of natural features became the occasion for big festivals, for instance the worship of the moon. By the beginning of the Qin Dynasty, in 219 BCE, the festival had developed into one of many colourful activities, and took a strong hold in the religious activities of a majority of the population in Chinese society (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:95-7). From the Tang Dynasty (713-905 CE.) onwards, it has been a universal custom for the Chinese family to gather all its members from far and wide once each year, and worship the moon together.
In the present chapter, I am not able to give a complete account of Chinese worship of natural objects. Instead, I shall employ some textual data to give a general portrait of divine stones and trees - which are directly relevant to this thesis.
II. Textual References to Divine Stones:
There are some textual references relating to divine stones.(note.1) One of the most frequently mentioned is the anecdote about the spiritual bond between the eccentric artist Mifu (1051-1107) and his Shixiong, "the Elder Brother Stone" (cf. Hay 1985:33-5; Wang Jing 1992:178). When this eccentric artist encountered a big stone, he regarded it as divine, bowed down with respect and called it "the Elder Brother Stone". In addition to the anecdote, rain-making stones, evil-warding stones, fertility stones, and Geomancy stones are well-recorded in texts.
1, Rain-making Stones:
Before the invention of modern irrigation systems, China was plagued with unpredictable rains and frequent droughts, and consequently the Chinese people have always felt a great concern for the provision of the most important natural source of water - rain in due season. However, this concern for timely rains has not been passive. On the contrary, it has manifested itself in numerous rainmaking "methods" intended to insure a sufficiency of water. These methods covered a full range of procedures from benign prayers through violent coercion of the rain deities (Cohen 1978:244).(note.2) For instance, there are legends about stones with rain-making capability. The first example of this comes from a text Jingzhouji written by Sheng Hongzhi during the fifth century. In Hengshan (County) of Hebei Province,
... there is a solitary mountain standing high and precipitous. On its north-east side there is a stone cave. If one takes a candle and goes in about one hundred paces there will be two big stones standing about ten feet apart. The common name for one is the Yang Stone, and for the other the Yin Stone. When there is calamity from drought or flood, one whips the Yang stone and then it rains, or one whips the Yin Stone and the sky clears (Cohen 1978:250).
In this instance, the underlying conception seems to be that one whips the stone that is overactive in its function. In other words, since Yang produces heat and dryness, when it produces too much it must forcibly be caused to reduce its energy and allow the Yin, which produces cold and wetness, to function, and vice versa (Cohen 1978:250).
A similar method texted also in Jingzhouji produced mixed results. The text says that if one takes a torch into a stone cave and goes in about one hundred paces, there will be two big stones, both standing erect in the cave about ten feet apart. They are commonly called the Yin and Yang Stones. The Yin Stone is always moist and Yang Stone is always parched. Whenever floods or drought are beyond control, the local people dress in fine costumes and ornaments, and go into the cave. If there is drought they whip the Yin Stone, and in due time it rains. If there is excessive rain then they whip the Yang Stone, and immediately the sky clears. According to the tradition that has been handed down, this is always efficacious (Cohen 1978:250-51). However, in this procedure, there were sometimes unpleasant consequences for the supplicant, because the one who wields the whip does not live long afterwards. Consequently, people loathe this custom and do not perform it (Cohen 1978:250-51).
In this second report one whips the stone to activate its energy, whereas in the first report the overactive stone was scourged. The associations of the Yinyang Stones with rain and drought, respectively, are conventional and were also emphasised in Dong Zhongshu's essays on making and stopping rain (Cohen 1978:251).
So far, it is clear that the notion of "whipping the rain- making stones to produce rain", similar to that of medical treatment and geomancy, is based on the principle of the Yinyang balance.(note.3) At least since the late Zhou Period (fourth century BCE.), Chinese have believed that there are two opposing but interrelated active energies in the world (cf. Paper 1990:27).
Chinese characters for Yin and Yang signify the shadowy and sunny sides respectively of the same mountain, which indicates the idea of two sides of the same existence, very similar to the Western saying: "two sides of the same coin." Yang represents sunshine, light, warm, positivity, masculinity, and associated with odd numbers (I shall translate the word "Yang" "positive energy" hereinafter). The Yin state is cloudy, dark, cold, negative, feminine, the earthy, and associated with even numbers (I shall translate the word "Yin" "negative energy" hereinafter) (cf. De Groot 1976:929). This conception implies that all things must have two sides, two aspects, two genders, or two energies. If the two interrelated active energies are balanced, the weather will be good.
2, Evil-warding Stones:
The custom of using stones to ward off evil spirits has existed for more than a thousand years. Among them, the most frequently found are "Shi Gandang", so called by modern people because these words are inscribed upon them. According to Werner (1977:427), the use of these stones is mentioned as occurring in the Tang Dynasty, about 770 BCE, in the reign of the Emperor Taizong (763-80 CE.), and also in the reign-period 1041-9 CE. of the Emperor Renzong (1023-64 CE.) of the Song Dynasty. Nowadays, we can find these stones even in Japan, Korea and many other Asian countries. Usually, they are placed in front of the main gate of a house or at the entrance of a street, or else at places subject to evil influences (cf. Wang Jing 1992:71).
In present-day Taiwan, I discovered many stones of this type bearing the inscription "Shi Gandang" or "Taishan Shi Gandang". I also found that the top of some of these stones are carved with a character "Fo" ("Buddha") or an image of a tiger's head whose forehead bears the character "Wang" (i.e. King). The term "Taishan" means Mt. Tai, the Sacred Mountain of the East which is located in Shandong Province. According to historical records, those who were named after "Shi" ("Stone") were numerous in Shandong. In later dynasties, people also adopted the character for surnames. The term "Gandang" literally means "daring to undertake formidable tasks" or "invincible in the face of enemies". Thus, "Shi Gandang" means "Stone that dares to undertake formidable tasks in the face of enemies" (cf. Werner 1977:427; Wang Jing 1992:71).
Chinese people believe that Mt. Tai is itself a deity or "Buddha", a powerful deity as well. Therefore, the inscription on these stones of "Shi Gandang", "Taishan", "Fo" ("Buddha") and/or an image of a tiger's head on these stones is a reinforcement of their power.(note.4)
3, Fertility Stones:
Chinese divine stones are commonly connected with fertilizing capability. The most typical of them is the story of the Stone Monkey in the well-known book entitled "The Travel to the West (Xiyouji)". The story says that a giant stone had existed since the creation of the world. It had been magically impregnated by the pure essences of Heaven and the fine scents of Earth, the vigor of sunshine and the grace of moonlight. One day the stone split open, gave birth to a stone egg, and developed into a stone monkey, complete with every organ and limb (Wu Ch'eng-en, trans. by Waley 1965:11).
In addition to the Stone Monkey, we know that the ancient Chinese hero "Houji", as well as "Qi", was said to be born of a stone (Granet 1975:92). Moreover, it is said that in the southeastern bank of the Horse Lake, a stone in the east gave birth to a little pebble; the stone in the west was pregnant with a pebble. People asked for their offspring and got their wishes fulfilled. They were thus named the birth-giving stones (cf. Wang Jing 1992:77).
Wang Jing (1992:77) also quotes two more legends relating to the birth-giving stones. The first is that Gaolin's mother once made an ablution in a river.
... She came across a stone of shiny colours and smooth texture, and brought it back with her. That night she dreamed of a man dressed as an immortal addressing her, "The stone is the sperm of the floating stone chime. If you treasure it dearly you will surely give birth to a son." Awakened from the dream in a shock, she sweated all over her body. In a short while, she became pregnant and gave birth to a son ...
The second legend states that in Sichuan Province there are two stones, separated by a river.
[They] faced each other like man and wife. According to ancient legends, the stone in the east prayed for a child from the stone in the west, and returned with one. Therefore people who did not have offspring used to go there to pray. Their prayers were answered efficaciously (Wang Jing 1992:77-78)
Besides, in the famous book "Dongmingji", we find a noteworthy record that a country named Tiaoji offered a Horse- liver Stone as a tribute to the Court of China. It could be mixed up with the nine-winding cinnabar. Those who brushed their grey hair with this stone could change it black again (qtd. in Wang Jing 1992:75). This stone, though not a birth-giving stone, is able to change grey hair, a sign of aging and decline, to black hair, the symbol of youth and energy, and can therefore be counted as a life-giving stone.
In his masterpiece (1958a; 1958b; 1958c), Burkhardt also notes that some divine stone in Hong Kong Island and the New Territories are fertility stones. These stones receive their tribute from engaged couples whose duty it is to ensure the perpetuation of the clan.
4, Geomancy Stones:
One of Graham's contributions (1961:114-15) to this subject is his finding regarding "Fengshui Shi" or "Geomancy Stones" near the Yangtze River, Southwest China. He reports that the stones regarded as the Geomancy Stone were numerous in this area and they are very often stones that are prominent in the landscape and strange and striking in appearance. Such stones are believed to affect for good "fengshui or "geomancy" of the family, city, or region concerned, they must not be cut or injured, for that would spoil the "geomancy" and bring calamities instead of good fortune to those involved.
For example, somewhere on the north shore of the Yangtze River (Graham 1961:114f), there is a strange-looking rock that for decades has been the Geomancy Stone of an important family. A large, round, pointed rock that resembles the upright piece of wood to which boatmen attach their oars is the Geomancy Stone of the nearby village. Across the Yangtze River from Anbian City, is a large rock on which many boats have been wrecked every year, with much loss of life and property. It could easily be broken to pieces and removed at the time of low water, but the people are afraid to do so. It is the Geomancy Stone of Anbian, and if it should be injured or destroyed, much harm would ensue to the people of Anbian. (note.5)
