(note.1)

They are: the stone Land God of Sin-hong Ward (#S29; see figure 31), the stone Land God of Phek-chiu Ward (#S32; see figure 34), the stone Land God of Tua-un Village (#S13; see figure 13), the stone Land God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S54; see figure 59), the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65) and the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12).

(note.2)

Still, the birthday festival of the stone Land God of Chui-bue-a Hamlet (#S30; see figure 32) is held at the end of the year. This date is not unusual in Taiwan (Suenari 1985:37), especially for some tiny shrines which do not hold elaborate festivals.

(note.3)

They are: the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45), the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Stone God of Hi-ti Rural-town (#S37; see figure 39), the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7; see figure 7), the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9; see figure 10), the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11), the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14), the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9), the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12), the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57), the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), the Stone God of Tang-si Town (#S59), the Stone God of Hong-guan City (#S60; see figure 64), the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#BL1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60), the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Tree God of Cho.-su Lane (#T22; see figure 88), the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89), the Tree God of Chap-ji Field (#T28; see figure 94), the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73), the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69), the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70), the Tree God of Tiong- san Ward (#T9; see figure 74), and the Tree King of Tai-li Rural- town (#T39; see figure 105).

(note.4)

On the night of the fifteenth day of the first month, the activity called "Lang Tho-ti-kong (literally, playing with the Land God)" begin. This is to place an deity statue of the Land God inside a sedan chair, then have it carried by strong men to the doors of business concerns, where they sway the sedan chair to and fro. The businessmen must set off firecrackers in welcome and thanks, because by coming to their place of business the Land God will bring them his protection (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:11f).

(note.5)

However, according to other legendary sources, she was born in 904, which is a way to associate her "living" with the history of the Ming Dynasty, to which the cult has close connections (Baptandier-Berthier 1993:3).

(note.6)

For details of the Goddess, see Baptandier-Berthier (1993) and Lo (1993).

(note.7)

As I have discussed above, many believers also regard the date as the birthday of the Land God.

(note.8)

For unity's sake, I shall follow McFarlane (1984:84) and translate the name of the goddess Ma-cho. into "the Granny" hereinafter.

(note.9)

Moreover, because the Stone God of Tek-san Town (#S17; see figure 17) is an associate god in the Temple of the Land God of Tik-san Town, the Stone God of Ka-lo Ward (#S18; see figure 18) is the associate god of the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20) is the associate god of the Land God of Ang-hia-chhu, the Stone God of Sin-hong Ward (#S27; see figure 29) is an associate god of the Land God of Tua-khut, the White Crane Immortal of Chhim-khen Rural- town (#S46; see figure 48) is an associate god of the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48), the Tree God of Uan-lim Town (#T1; see figure 66) is an associate god of the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Pine King of Chong- ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67) is an associate god in front of the Temple of the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District, the Banyan God of Sion-lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83) is an associate deity of the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35), the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104) is an associate god of the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), the Tree God of Gue-bai Hamlet (#T20; see figure 86) is an associate god of Liong-tek Temple, people do not hold annual festivals for these deities.

(note.10)

They are: the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20), the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22), the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25), the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26), the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27), the stone Land God of E-huan Field (#S28; see figure 30), the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33), the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37), the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58), the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62), the Beech Grandfather of Pak-si Ward (#T16; see figure 81), the tree Land God of Pak-li Rural-town (#T35; see figure 102), the Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural-town (#T36; see figure 103).

(note.11)

However, due to the lack of historical records, so far I am not able to figure out the reason why there is no festival for the Tree God of Po-san Ward (#T31; see figure 97). Moreover, I have not figured out why the birthday festival of the Stone Goddess of Lek- biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4), the Tree God and Goddess of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72), and the Banyan Tree Goddess of Thong- liang Village (#T27; see figure 93) are celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, the same date of the Dragon Boat Festival. I also do not understand why the birthday festival of the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68) is held on the 20th of the first month. Moreover, I do not know why the birthday festivals of the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84) is celebrated on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth lunar month; the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47) is celebrated on the ninth day of the eighth lunar month; the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92) is celebrated on the twenty- third day of the eighth lunar month; the Wind-moving Stone of Bak- sa District (#S48; see figure 51) is celebrated on the eighteenth day of the tenth lunar month; the Tree King of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96) is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month. All these questions need further studies.

(note.12)

I say "more or less anthropomorphised" because they may also appear as non-human images.

(note.13)

Beside these, anthropomorphism is entailed in all prayers, divinations, sacrifice and others. For details, please see Chapter Seven.

(note.14)

For the God's images in picture or statues, please see last chapter for details.

(note.15)

Maspero (1981:6) asserts that the Land God was barely personalised and even permanent gods had no legend. However, the results of my field research differ from him.

(note.16)

As I shall analyse step by step in the rest of this thesis, these legends do not only serve for the studies of the anthropomorphism and standardisation of the God, but also for the historicisation of him.

(note.17)

A variant of the preceding legend says that because he gave away all his possessions during his life, Tong Siau died a pauper (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:31f).

(note.18)

The ancestors of Zhang Liang, the marquis of Liu, were men of the Han State. His father, Zhang Ping, was prime minister to King Li. Twenty years after Zhang Ping's death Qin State destroyed the Han State. Because of his youth, Zhang Liang never had an opportunity to serve as a minister of Han State. When the State was destroyed, Zhang Liang was left with a retinue of three hundred male servants.

Zhang Liang was once strolling idly along an embankment when an old man wearing a coarse gown appeared. Reaching the place where Zhang Liang was, he deliberately dropped his shoe down the embankment and, turning to Zhang Liang, said, "Fetch me my shoe, young man!"

Zhang Liang, completely taken aback, was about to hit him, but because the man was old he swallowed his resentment and climbed down and got the shoe, "Put it on for me!" ordered the old man, and Zhang Liang, since he had already gone to the trouble of fetching it, knelt respectfully and prepared to put on the shoe. The old man held out his foot and, when the shoe was on, laughed and went on his way. Zhang Liang, more startled than ever, stood looking after him. When the old man had gone some distance, he turned and came back. "You could be taught, young man," he said. "Meet me here at dawn five days from now!" Zhang Liang, thinking this all every strange, knelt and replied, "I will do as you say."

At dawn five days later he went to the place, but found the man already there. "When you have an appointment with an old man, how is it that you come late?" he asked angrily. "Go away, and meet me at dawn five days from now, only come earlier!" Five days later Chang Liang got up at the crow of cock and went to the place, but once more the old man had gotten there before him. "Why are you late again?" the old man asked in anger. "Go away, and five days from now come earlier!"

Five days later Zhang Liang went to the place before half the night was through. After a while the old man came along. "This is the way it should be!" he said. Then, producing a book, he said, "If you read this you may become the teacher of Kings. Ten years from now your fortune will rise. Thirteen years from now you will see me again. A yellow stone at the foot of Mount Kucheng in northern Qi -- that will be I." Without another word he left and Zhang Liang never saw him again.

When dawn came Zhang Liang examined the book which the old man had given him and found it to be The Grand Duke's Art of War. He set great store by it and was to be found constantly poring over it.

Zhang Liang, of course, became a well-known hero in Chinese history. As a result, his teacher, the Yellow Stone, became famous as well (Watson 1961:135).

(note.19)

The name of Xian'gong is Lyu Dongbin and the title of him is Fuyu Dijun (the Trusted and Helpful Imperial Lord) (Thompson 1988:76). However, he is simply called Xianzhu (the Immortal Patriarch) or Xian'gong (the Immortal Grandfather) in Taiwan. Xian'gong is one of the Eight Immortal Ones, but probably because of his descending via the writing stick called the "fabulous phoenix" (luan) to communicate with believers (cf. Thompson 1988:76) and via dream divination, he is the only one of the group who enjoys religious popularity in Taiwan, especially in South Taipei area (Feuchtwang 1992:193).

(note.20)

For the study of the different attitudes toward miracles between the elites and common people, please see Chapter Five.

(note.21)

However, the "She" was also a state standardised cult. I shall discuss it in detail in Chapter Eight.