Jerome Yuchien's Ph.D Thesis
Chapter Eight: The Links among the Stone, Tree, and Land Deities (part II)
III. Historical Studies of the "She" Cult:
The importance of the studies concerned with the "She" has been recognised by many modern scholars, both oriental and western. For instance, in Chinese language, there was not a specific term to signify "society". The modern term "Shehui" is borrowed from Japanese language. "Shehui" literally means "gathering for the worship of the 'She'" (cf. Hodous, 1929:58; Yang 1961:98).
1, Origin of the "She" Cult:
Based on certain Chinese classics, Ling Shun-sheng maintains that the "She" Cult had been in existence from the very beginning of Chinese history (1964:37). I select some of the quotations he cited as follows:
Vol. 32 of the Shuijingzhu: "There was the 'She' of Emperor Shennong" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).
Fengshan of the Shiji: "Beginning with the prosperous period under the rule of Emperor Yu, the sacrificial system of the 'She' began to be established" (qtd. in Ling Shun- sheng 1964:37).
The Guanzi states: "King Youyu built a mound of earth as the 'She'" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).
The Huai'nanzi: "For the sacrificial rites under the rule of King Youyu, the 'She' was made with earth" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).
Therefore, Sima Qian, a great historian comments that: "The system of the "She" has been developed through a very, very long period" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).
2, Functions of the "She":
According to the paleographic study mentioned above, the "She" was originally a representation of the phallus and its cult was a fertility cult to which sacrifices were offered for abundant harvests.(note.8) Thus, according to Hodous (1929:59), the "She" altars should be set in the open air in order to represent the focal point of the fructifying forces of earth to heaven.
At least since the Zhou Dynasty, when the feudal state was also considered as a territorial entity, the "She" of state was located in the capital of each state and was given the name of the dynasty to which it belonged. For example, the "She" of the Xia Dynasty was named "Xiashe" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). From that time on, the state altar of the "She" was constructed with ground obtained from the different parts of its land (Hodous 1929:59). Cited below for illustration is a record from the Liji (i.e. Book of Rites): "The domestic sacrificial services were performed under the skylight (or roof window) and the state sacrificial rites were performed at the 'She'" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:38).
As a result, the "She" not only was the scene of fertility rites but also became in effect the locus of each state's guardian god and became in turn the symbol of the continuing power of the state (Yang 1961:98; Wright 1977:39). At the time of important occasions such as the birth of a prince, ascension to rule, sickness of the emperor or empress, solar eclipse, drought, big hunting party, and military campaigns, libations were offered to the "She" altar (Overmyer 1987:260). Moreover, when the ruler of the state went on a journey he announced the fact and made an offering for a successful outcome (cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1958:49; Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:572).
Here the soldiers starting on a distant expedition were exhorted to be true to the "She" which gave them birth and nourished them (Hodous 1929:59). Here the armies of a state sacrificed before the start of a campaign, and here they presented captives and offered sacrifices after a victory. Before the "She" altar, the ruler took a solemn vow (Wright 1977:39). The chief carried the tablet of the "She" in his baggage when he set forth to war, before it he sacrificed the vanquished and the guilty and bestowed rewards (Granet 1930:239-40).
Thus, when one state defeated another, then the "She" altar of the defeated state had to be covered over by the victor. For instance, as recorded in Gaozu Bengji of the Shiji, when the Qin Dynasty was overthrown by the Han, the state "She" altar was ruined and covered over (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). This practice was based on the belief that the covering of the "She" altar of the defeated state could prevent the revival of the former state by the beneficent forces of nature (Hodous 1929:59; Chamberlayne 1966:167). Indeed, as we see in many textual references, the extinction of a state was expressed as "the interruption of ('She') sacrifice" or "the ruin of the "She" altar" (Fitzgerald 1961:38; Wright 1977:39).
In Han times (206 BCE. - 220 CE.), the "She" was universally found in counties, villages, towns, and neighbourhoods, and it became the ceremonial ground for a large variety of community activities such as the swearing of a local official into office, praying for rain, taking a public vow, or praying for blessing (Yang 1961:98).
As time went on, the "She" acquired other functions. It came into relationship with rural granaries in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and assumed the task of local famine relief, which was to be important in the sub-administrative schemes of practically all subsequent dynasties (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:37). Since this period, the organisation of many villages or neighbourhoods was often called "She" (Yang 1961:98).
According to some official documents, a varying number of adjacent households (between twenty and fifty) were to constitute one "She", so that the households in each division could extend "mutual assistance in farm work, in the event of death or sickness occurring in any of them during the farming season" (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:36).(note.9)
According to "Huian County Government Manual" (published in 1672 and reprinted 1987) cited by Wang Mingming, the name of the place administration system was called "pudu (precinct and garrisons)". Each "pu" had a "tan (temple or altar) in which the grain god (liji shen) and the place god (lishe shen), as well as the local territorial patron (shi zhu), were placed. Within the temple, the north part of the space was allocated to a representative from the "du" and the governors of the "pu". Between the deities and the governors was a space for religious specialists. Ordinary members of the "pu" were excluded from the enclosed temple and were placed outside the gate of the temple to witness proceedings of meetings and ceremonies organised by the governors (Wang Mingming 1995:49).
Because these specific gods were enshrined in the temple and the common people were excluded, I suspect it was also a "She" temple. Moreover, several records were kept in the temple. These were community compact regulations (xiangyue), lists of households, and registration documents of new immigrants who just moved into the particular "pu". A temple or "tan" was intended as a focal point of "pu" as a place. This was where disasters such as floods, fire, theft, disease, and crimes were reported to the governors and gods, publicised to the people, and resolved. It was also where local civil disputes such as those regarding marriage, land ownership, property, and exchange of goods were mediated by the governors and elders of the "pu", and where deviance and criminality was punished in front of the public. On three occasions annually, universal salvation festivals (pudu) were officially organised to exorcise diseases and hungry ghosts (Wang Mingming 1995:49).
